Medieval Theology Among Its Great Philosophers: An Introduction

 

Many of the theologians of the Middle Ages understood scripture in allegorical terms. For example, for many of them, the depictions of Old Testament Israel were actually more about the church than Israel itself. Concerning the relation between Israel and the church, many of the later Reformed theologians would adopt the same hermeneutics concerning Israel and the church as did their medieval Catholic ancestors. While a literal interpretation of scripture became more dominant during the Reformation, allegory persisted among most Christians until modern times (especially during the nineteenth-century). While a few theologians in the Middle Ages did interpret scripture more literally, most of them were in the minority. Today, many Roman Catholic theologians interpret scripture more literally more than do most of their ancestors. 

The medievals had not invented the allegorical interpretation of scripture. They had inherited it from the Alexandrian school of thought among the patristics. While the medievals at times took it farther than their ancestors, Origen of Alexandria, Jerome of Rome, and Augustine of Hippo are just a few names of those who had embraced an allegorical interpretation of scripture. The school of Antioch, on the other hand, had held to a more literal view of scripture as would later inspire modern premillennialism. 

A good example of medieval allegory is in the book, Pope Innocent III and the Greek Church by Richard James Clearly. Since the pope believed that he represented Christ on earth, he understood the throne in heaven described in Revelation as referring to the papacy (not to Christ alone). Throughout the previously mentioned text, the reader will find in this source many examples where Innocent (certainly not ignorant of scripture) read scripture as having a significantly different understanding than its literal sense. While Innocent's words on his belief in the power of the papacy will probably offend many Protestants, his writings reflect the growing medieval understanding of the papacy of his time. 

Some theologians of the past and present have attempted to bridge allegory and Biblical literalism. This was the case for Aquinas. While holding to Transubstantiation, Aquinas also embraced certain Marian concepts never mentioned directly in scripture. However, he also praised a literal interpretation of scripture*1 and believed that scripture was the final authority (not the papacy).  

Concerning the authority of scripture, Aquinas said the following: ''We believe the prophets and apostles because the Lord has been their witness by performing miracles...And we believe the successors of the apostles and the prophets only in so far as they tell those things which the apostles and prophets have left in their writings (OT, XIV, 10, ad 11, emphasis added).''

Elsewhere, Aquinas elaborated on his belief that scripture is the final authority: ''The reason for this is that only the canonical scriptures are normative for faith...Others who write about the truth do so in such a way that they do not want to be believed unless what they affirm is true (TCJ, 21, lecture 6, emphasis added.)''

To Aquinas, not even the magisterium had the authority to conflict with what scripture taught. He never assumed that they were infallibly protected from wrongly understanding it either. It's interesting to think about how Aquinas would have justified his views on the mass, Mariology, and other topics not mentioned directly in scripture. Throughout his commentary on Romans, Aquinas did not appeal to either the pope or the church fathers primarily to defend his view of justification. Rather, his knowledge of scripture in the book is extensive as he carefully reads Paul to believe in justification by both faith and works. This may come as a surprise to some modern evangelicals, who wrongly believe that no Catholic theologian has ever used scripture to justify Catholicism (though this wasn't uncommon in Medieval times). 

Over the following weeks, I hope to analyze the thoughts of Albert the Great, Aquinas, Bonaventure, and other medieval theologians on various theological topics. Nothing about the Middle Ages can be understood; not its history, nor its art and literature unless one understands the worldview that the medievals upheld. 

*1-https://stpaulcenter.com/aquinas-the-biblical-approach-of-the-model-catholic-theologian/

All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness...-2 Timothy 3:16

Further Sources: 

Geisler, Norman. Systematic Theology. (2002). BethanyHouse.